Biodiversity Conservation

Have we halted the course of natural selection through our conservation efforts?

Natural selection is a process by which only the best-adapted individuals produce the healthiest young; these young continue to carry the adaptations into the next generation, essentially weeding out the weak. An example of this adaptation process can be seen in Darwin’s Finches.

 Image provided by Google

Further reading can be found in the paper: Darwin’s Finches by Michaela Hau and Martin Wikelski.

 These small birds developed their unique beaks to suit their individual environments, eating either insects or fruit and nuts. Some of these finches even became adept tool users.

Adaptation can take different forms, not just a physical adaptation such as the shape of a beak; the Red Tailed Hawk has taken quite comfortably to making the ledges, nooks and crannies of the bustling city of Manhattan its nesting grounds. When one thinks of a busy bustling city and the birds residing there it’s usually Pigeons and Seagulls. These birds have adapted and grown accustomed to our presence, even associating us with a free meal or two.

These Pigeons of Hyde Park in London sought me out for a meal.

The Rainbow lorikeets in Terrigal ACT receive a meal, though I was not impressed with the numbers when compared to the flocks found in London.

 Conservation seeks to save as many species as possible. Creatures such as the cute Giant Panda are doomed to extinction, and this is not necessarily due to human activities. The Giant Panda females only ovulate once a year in the spring meaning only one chance to produce offspring. They also have only one major food source, Bamboo, which makes up 99% of their diet and also provides them with the water needed for survival. One chance to reproduce and one major food source makes them more vulnerable to extinction as apposed to the Red Tailed Hawk, Pigeons and Seagulls who have adapted quite well to eating our fish and chips. Yum.

Conservation efforts are put in place to see that creatures such as the Giant Panda can stick around so that future generations can wonder, “how did they survive?”

If we were to look at the causes/reasons behind the ‘need’ for conservation efforts we see that humans have either added new threats or accelerated old ones, to the point where there is not enough time to allow adaptation to take place. These are the usual man-made culprits such as deforestation, hunting, urban sprawl and climate change. However, the main reason for this blog entry was to highlight the idea that conservation efforts, while having good intentions, may be fruitless in the long run… but we should still try.

Ciao,

Stacey Manton

Figure 1: The Ciliwung River basin map. Flowing from the Tugu Puncak in Bogor through to Jakarta in the West Java Province. 
(Department of Environmental Engineering, Jakarta)

The Ciliwung River Basin is one of the largest river systems in Indonesia, flowing along a 97km narrow corridor from the Tugu Puncak in the mountains near Bogor, through the Jakarta metropolitan area, and terminating in the sea in Jakarta Bay.

The Ciliwung is a major water source for the large municipalities of Bogor and Jakarta, and its waters are also utilised for local transportation, for agricultural irrigation, and for general household uses in many small communities along its banks, including illicit slum-dwellers living next to the river in Jakarta. The river has a recent history of extensive waste dumping and silt build-up; toxic inputs from household and industrial chemicals; congested riverside dwellings; and man-made obstructions such as bridges and dams. These have all resulted in considerable increases of the frequency and volume of wet season flooding in Jakarta, dramatically declining water quality,  and loss of biological diversity.

“The Ciliwung is now recognised as one of the most exploited, congested and polluted rivers in the world”

(River Foundation Jakarta)

In late 2012, following previous government-sponsored river management efforts (for example, PROKASIH), the governor of Jakarta proposed a new expansion of the Ciliwung river as one solution to these on-going challenges, especially the flooding. However, parts of this US$190 million project will involve building more dykes, dredging canals, and overhauling four reservoirs over the next five years (Jakarta Post, 2013), as well as relocating 30,000 people living in slums along the river’s banks to various regions around Jakarta. This will all amount to more human-induced alteration of what was once a natural river.

Human alteration of River ecology

Rivers with highly altered and regulated flows lose their ability to support natural processes and native species (N. LeRoy Poff et al, 1997). According to a study conducted by Jakarta’s Biology Research center, from 1953, when research began, to the early 21st Century, the Ciliwung River was home to 18 types of native crustaceans, 187 types of native fish, and 62 reptile species. Today, only 9 crustacean species, 23 fish species, and 14 reptile species survive in the river. Moreover, an analysis was undertaken from 1993 to 2005 by the Department of Environmental Engineering on the water quality of the river. As shown in Table 1, water quality has drastically decreased at all sites tested from the quality originally measured in 1993.

Figure 3: Elicit slum dwellings residing along the Ciliwung River and subsequent river pollution in Jakarta city. Photo taken from google.

Figure 4: Comparison of Water Quality Index (WQI) on different sites from 1993 – 2005. The water samples were analyzed using WQI which are based on the procedure adopted in International Sanitation Foundation – Water Quality Standard by Ott (1978).

 

 

Figure 5: Local resident carrying out day-to-day washing in the Ciliwung River. An example of a contribution pressure to the Ciliwung River. Photo taken from google.

 

Sustaining Ecological Integrity

“Society’s ability to maintain and restore the integrity of river ecosystems and flowing water systems depends largely on their natural dynamic character”

(N. LeRoy Poff et al, 1997)

The plans to dredge areas along the Ciliwung to deepen its channels; to build more dykes across it; and to overhaul four reservoirs along its course to remove silt buildup and increase water storage together can only be short-term solutions to reduce wet season flooding of metropolitan Jakarta.

By contrast, fundamental long-term river conservation and management solutions, as emphasized by N. LeRoy Poff et al (1997), involve coordinated actions to restore the river’s natural flow variability and connectivity. By removing waste swelling, re-connecting rivers to floodplains, and enhancing the quality and capacity of wetlands, river restoration increases natural storage capacity and reduces flood risk as a long term solution (RESTORE). In turn, it will incrementally restore ecological integrity of the river for native species diversity and the needs of local residents.

Figure 6: Illustrates the significance of Natural Flow Regimes and its five critical components to regulate ecological processes in river ecosystems: the magnitude, frequency, duration, timing, and rate of change o hydrologic conditions. These components influence integrity both directly and indirectly on other primary regulators of integrity: water quality, energy source, physical habitat, and biotic interactions.
(N. LeRoy Poff et al, 1997, Pg. 769)

 

 

Alexandra Dunbar | Australian National University

Cats versus  Native Cats

Martyn Ellis

When it comes to describing pet cats words like loveable, intelligent and affectionate spring to mind. However there are other words to describe them: cunning, calculating and a major threat to biodiversity in Australia. In Australia it is estimated that 3.8 million kills by domestic cats of native animals occur each year (EPA 2010).

What are our other options of pets you say? What about our own native cat, the Quoll. Quolls are Australia’s largest carnivorous marsupial and are considered a keystone predator. There are four species of quolls in Australia: the northern, spotted-tailed, eastern and western quolls. Since 1770, all four species of Quoll through a combination of human modifications to the environment and the introduction of cats, quoll populations have declined dramatically. These impacts have meant that all four of Australia’s Quoll species are now either vulnerable or endangered under the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act.

(Credit: Michael Barritt)

Current legislation in Australia prevents most native animals being kept as pets or bred for sale. However, for some animals it is seen as a great way of conserving them and boosting their public image. Dr  Paul Hopwood from the University of Sydney stated

“Because people bond with their pets, it would generate interest in why these creatures are going extinct in the bush. By focusing on rare and endangered animal species the revenue from the animals sale could be used to supplement the scarce funds available for conservation and reintroduction programs in the wild”

Photo: Jonathan Webb.

Dr Meri Oakwood from the ANUand Dr Paul Hopwood from the University of Sydney surveyed 20 scientists and wildlife carers which have had experience with quolls. The conclusions were:

“Overall, it appeared that dietry components essential were readily available, housing was simple, Quolls were rarely demanding on time, mostly healthy and rarely stressed.’ Oakwood says. `Specialist attention, such as veterinary, was only required occasionally and no adverse human health effects were observed.”

Oakwood & Hopwood studies have suggested that there are definite possibilities towards Quolls being kept as house-pets and that a pilot study is recommended based on a captive breeding colony of quolls, whose offspring would be placed with carers as trial house-pets.

(Critter the Quoll when first obtained. Photo P Ellis)

 As someone who has had firsthand experience in keeping and raising a Quoll in Northern Territory in a house I cannot recommend them highly enough. They are very friendly, low maintenance, playful, intelligent and are easily toilet trained. When we moved “critter” was given to a captive breeding program in Darwin and was eventually released back into the bush.

So lately I’ve been reading this book by Paul Ehrlich called “The Machinery of Nature”. The book provides a neat overview of how evolution has led to the biodiversity of life which exists today. Particularly interesting was a chapter which outlines the ways in which animal species have evolved complex social behaviours. It refers particularly to selection, and how organisms share a singular goal of passing on genes. The thought struck me as I was reading that something so important in the evolution of species should be equally important for conservation of these species. As it turns out, whilst the integration of animal behavioural studies (ethology) and conservation biology has improved in recent years, it is still left comparatively lacking (Berger-Tal et al 2011). Sutherland (1998) for example finds far fewer mentions of conservation in animal behaviour research than in equivalent population or genetic studies.

So why isn’t conservation often considered in studies of animal behaviour? Could it be an intentional oversight? Berger-Tal et al. suggest a lack of a disciplinary framework; Sutherland suggests a prejudice exists towards “more exciting” research. I however find it difficult to believe that anyone who studies animal behaviour could place any less significance on species protection. Indeed, as I (and I’m sure anyone else who’s watched an Attenborough documentary) could attest, the more you learn about an animal’s behaviour, the more you feel personally invested in its survival.

cheetah image from Wikimedia commons

Through trying to put myself into an ethologist’s shoes, I can suggest two further possible explanations for why this lack of integration might exist:

#1. The subjectivity often required in interpreting behaviour makes it tricky to apply to conservation with certainty. Behavioural theories can be amended if they’re deemed inaccurate, but species cannot be brought back from extinction.

#2. Behaviour can adapt quicker than physical characteristics to selection pressures, and thus can vary significantly on an intraspecies level (Alexander 1976). What works for one population in this instance might not work for another.

“You may be rare, but your behaviour is making my conservation choice difficult” – source markcarwadine.com

Improving the linking of research would benefit both disciplines, as they are to some degree reliant on each other (Clemmons and Buchholz 1997). Without conservation, ethology stands to lose valuable research species. Without ethology, effectiveness of conservation efforts may be hampered by a lack of behavioural knowledge. For example behaviour is critical in how species can persist in fragmented habitats, and in the reintroduction of captive species into the wild.

With a continuing decline in species the role of ethology can only increase in importance. The barriers to a knowledge resource so valuable for conservation need to be removed.

Author: Richie Southerton (contact via: u4539971@anu.edu.au)

References

Alexander, R. D. (1974). The evolution of social behavior. Annual review of ecology and systematics, 5, 325-383.

Berger-Tal, O., Polak, T., Oron, A., Lubin, Y., Kotler, B. P., & Saltz, D. (2011). Integrating animal behavior and conservation biology: a conceptual framework. Behavioral Ecology, 22(2), 236-239.

Clemmons, J. R., & Buchholz, R.(1997). Linking conservation and behavior. In: Clemmons, J. R., & Buchholz, R. (eds.) Behavioral approaches to conservation in the wild, Cambridge University Press, 3-22.

Ehrlich, P. (1986) The Machinery of Nature. Collins.

Sutherland, W. J. (1998). The importance of behavioural studies in conservation biology. Animal Behaviour, 56(4), 801-809.

In an increasingly urbanised society, it’s difficult to truly interest the public with the ever-declining state of the environment. After all, they pay taxes to protect national parks, and they only get to enjoy them on a holiday every now and then. If only they explored the beautiful environment on their doorsteps. Maybe then they would be more engaged in the conservation of biodiversity.

About an hour and a half drive from Canberra there are amazing wet forests that straddle the Great Dividing Range above the Budawang National Park. Due to discontinued military activity and the rugged terrain, the Budawangs are one of the best-preserved environments in southeast Australia, comprising dry exposed heath through to the wet forests above.

So why do I care about biodiversity? I am studying to become an ecologist because I am curious as to how different environments function. I also hope that my work will help to protect these environments. However this interest was not born out of my education, or a sense of concern for the welfare of the environment. As a teenager, my older brothers would take me out on bike rides in the mountains surrounding Canberra. Traveling through the region, I noticed the diverse array plants and animals and how they have all found their own niche, in a gully, or an exposed ridge for instance. Over time I began to appreciate the complexity and diversity this region has to offer, and it is now in my interest to maintain it.

The endangered box gum grassy woodlands north of Canberra are interspersed with frost hollows that make for a beautiful sunrise. Photo courtesy of Simon Wilson

The problem is, for many people, a genuine appreciation of the natural world only occurs on an occasional basis, in some distant, well-publicised world heritage area. Yet a short morning run or bike ride, a Sunday afternoon drive, or a camping trip on a long weekend could reveal a far more remote and untouched wilderness. The biodiversity that they once only really cared about as a sense of duty, now regularly enriches their life.

Roughly an hour’s drive east of Canberra lies the diverse forests of Tallagandra State Forest, home to endangered velvet worms.

As people begin to engage with the biodiversity right on their doorstep, their interest and concern for its conservation will most likely increase. This concern will lead to greater public support for the conservation of biodiversity. Further more, they may become involved in local conservation groups, and become more aware of their environmental footprint.

Namadgi National Park is home to a wide range of environments from the gnarly windswept Snow Gums (E. pauciflora) on the tree line, through to the sphagnum moss bogs which are home to the endangered Northern Corroboree Frog (Pseudophryne pengilleyi).

I encourage all of you to go on an adventure and explore some of the beautiful and diverse landscapes around where you live, whether it be in Canberra or another town or city. And importantly, spread the word, take friends and family along, and challenge yourself to explore everything there is on offer. Not only will it have positive impacts on your mental and physical health, you will be creating support the conservation of biodiversity.

If you don’t know where to get started talk to your local outdoors store or an adventure club (such as the mountaineering club at ANU), or feel free to contact myself. TAMS also has maps and brochures for most of the nature reserves here in Canberra

By Nicholas Wilson

Technology plays a big role in conservation nowadays. While I was in a field trip for Biodiversity Conservation, I found that camera traps were superior in detecting mammals than live trapping methods. This use of technology has been heavily contributing to wildlife surveys for conservation purposes (Garden et al. 2007). From the data collected on the field trip, camera traps are efficient in detecting individual mammals, a variety of species and at the same time gives you the ability to deploy for period of days without then need to be present.

I did a bit of research on my own and found that camera traps are essential in identifying presence of threatened species back in my country (Malaysia). Malaysia is located just above the equator and is one of the biodiversity hotspots in the world. No doubt it is home to many unique native species, including the largest flower on earth, Rafflesia arnoldii, the Bornean orangutan, clouded leopard and Bornean elephant. Yet conservation is still greatly undervalued in our society.

Malaysia is divided into West Malaysia( Peninsular Malaysia) and East Malaysia (Sabah and Sarawak) which is also part of the island of Borneo (Source: World Atlas)

Using camera traps, Mohd Azlan & Sanderson (2007) identified the distribution of the Endangered Bornean bay cat (World’s only video of the elusive cat) and any threats to its persistence . These rare cats are threatened by hunting and land use changes.

Captive bay cat. Photo by: Jim Sanderson.

Camera traps recently revealed the importance of wildlife corridors.The Sabah Wildlife Department (SWD) and the Danau Girang Field Centre (DGFC) photographed wildlife using a corridor connecting two fragmented forests in the lower Kinabatangan Wildlife Sanctuary. The images reveal the importance of such linkages for Borneo’s mammals and birds to move between surviving forests.

“Interestingly, we captured a lot of pictures of arboreal primates such as orangutans, proboscis monkeys and langurs (including the very rare Hose’s langur) on the ground. It probably demonstrates that there is a lack of tree connection,” explains Benoit Goossens, Director of DGFC.

A cheeky long tailed macaque (Macaca fascicularis) Photo by: Sabah Wildlife Department (SWD) and the Danau Girang Field Centre (DGFC)

 Malaysia is still a developing country. Thus most attention is given to the economy and development of the nation, instead of conservation. Oil palm plantations and deforestation are being prioritized over conservation, diminishing habitats for threatened species. In Sarawak, forests are heavily fragmented by oil palm plantations along the Kinabatangan River, making it difficult for animals to move between surviving forests.

Even so, the state governments of Sabah and Sarawak have been negligence in managing National Parks. After pledged to build wildlife corridors especially in the Kinabatangan Sanctuary, the palm oil industry and Sabah government has made little progress in mitigating deforestation. Forestry officers are often paid when no work was given to do. Our lush green forests had not been properly maintained and there had been lacking in law enforcement. Furthermore, an investigation has vindicated a timber corruption case in Sarawak where the Chief Minister personally profited immensely from destruction of Borneo rainforest through logging and oil palm plantations (Find out more). This shows how lowly the government thinks of biodiversity.

The sun bear (Ursus malayanus) is listed as Vulnerable by the IUCN Red List. Photo by: Sabah Wildlife Department (SWD) and the Danau Girang Field Centre (DGFC)

   Still the question remains, why should people care about biodiversity when money, technology advancement and politics are the main concerns? In Malaysia, most people are still financially unstable, let alone putting an effort into conservation. This however is not where the main problem lies, but the public awareness itself, of the importance of biodiversity. Ultimately, biodiversity provides important ecosystem services and other benefits to the society.  The solution I strongly encouraged is to instill biodiversity conservation into primary education and the local consciousness. These spectacular images can hopefully capture not just the eye of the public, but also the heart of government and the locals in protecting our national treasures.

The Sunda clouded leopard (Neofelis diardi), Vulnerable . Photo by: Sabah Wildlife Department (SWD) and the Danau Girang Field Centre (DGFC).

The Borneon OrangUtan (Pongo pygmaeus), Endangered. Photo by: Sabah Wildlife Department (SWD) and the Danau Girang Field Centre (DGFC).

By Wei Cheng Tan ( Bachelor of Sciencce )

While I am writing this blog, I’ve just realized that Sophie has posted a blog about Hong Kong. My blog focuses on the Mai Po wetland reserve (which Sophie has also mentioned). It may be the first reserve that I went to (when I was 5 or 6), and probably my first understanding of a natural reserve.

The Mai Po wetland reserve locates at the northwestern corner of Hong Kong, and has been known as a haven for migratory birds to stop over for many decades. The reserve is one of the important stop-over points on the “East Asian-Australian Flyway”, which is an important “flight routes” that spans over 13,000 kilometres. According to WWF Hong Kong, who is responsible for managing the area defined by the Ramsar wetland convention, there are around 30,000 migratory waterbirds using this tiny reserve (1880 acres) to rest and refuel each year. Some of them would spend the winter in Hong Kong, in which more than 30 species of them are under global conservation concern, including endangered species such as Saunders’ Gull and a quarter of the world’s population of the Black-faced Spoonbill.

Figure 1 – Saunders’ Gull                                    Figure 2- Black-faced Spoonbill

Traditional management practice – Gai Wai

One of the special feature of the reserve is its 24 traditionally operated shrimp ponds (locally called gei wai), which are now the only such ponds in Hong Kong and in southern China. Before the implementation of the reserve in 1995, the Gei Wai shrimp pond operators completely drained down their Gei Wai to harvest the fish inside the pond when the shrimp-harvesting season ended from early winter. When the gei wai is drained, the areas of shallow water or exposed mud on the pond floor would provide foods for thousands of migratory birds that pass through. The drain down provides a wonderful opportunity for us to observe and photograph these birds.

Figure 3- Mai Po Gei Wai

The WWF has kept this traditional management practice of gei wai as it can contribute to the ecological value of the site. They practices the winter drain down of the gei wai on a rotation basis, one gei wai is drained every two weeks from November to March (WWF, 2012). This unique system of shrimp production itself is also an example of the sustainable use of a wetland because shrimp production relies on the natural productivity of Deep Bay. Therefore, the WWF uses Gei Wai to educate the public about the significant ecological value of this traditional management practices.

Figure 4- Birds feeding on the Mai Po wetland

Although the WWF and the HK government has been doing a good job on managing and protecting the Mai Po wetland reserve, it has been under considerable threat by its shrinking size and development pressure in the nearby area (Murphy, 2013). The pressure not only comes from within Hong Kong, but also from its neighbouring city, Shenzhen. The reserve sits next to the border of these two cities. Shenzhen’s mangrove forests, which are the upstream of the Mai Po marshes, have been under threat from property projects. The WWF HK (He, 2012) said, “Although the size of the mangrove forest on the Hong Kong side has expanded in recent years, various infrastructure projects and water pollutions across the Pearl River Delta are continuing to affect the Hong Kong side.” If that continues, it would create threat to the migratory birds and also the species that have been living there for centuries.

Figure 5- development pressure on Mai Po reserve (sourced from: Murphy, M., 2013. Development pressure on Mai Po reserve shows need for action. South China Morning Post. 18^th April, 2013)

The issue shows the difficulty on managing a reserve that is so close to the urban area of its neighbouring city, in which they have different development focuses in the area. There has to be better collaboration between the two cities to minimize the negative impact brought from across the border in order to protect this migration haven and also the species that live within or passes through.

Roni Ng , BISS (Environmental Policy & International Business)

Works citied

He, H., 2012. Shrinking Shenzhen mangrove forests poses threat to migratory birds. South China Morning Post. 28^th Novermber, 2012. Available at: <http://www.scmp.com/news/china/article/1092477/shrinking-shenzhen-mangrove-forests-poses-threat-migratory-birds>

Hong Kong Wetland Park, 2008. World Wetlands Day 2007. Available at: <http://www.wetlandpark.com/wwd/en/fisheries/geiwai.asp&gt;

Murphy, M., 2013. Development pressure on Mai Po reserve shows need for action. South China Morning Post. 18^th April, 2013. Available at:<http://www.scmp.com/comment/insight-opinion/article/1216823/development-pressure-mai-po-reserve-shows-need-action>

WWF, 2012. Gei Wai Winter Drain Down 2011/12. Available at: <http://www.wwf.org.hk/en/news/_m.cfm?5660/Gei-wai-Winter-Drain-down-201112&gt;